The first law of thermodynamics was indicated to describe the mechanical equivalent of heat. The second law is a statistical law which indicates a general trend. In the transfer of heat between systems, photon activity must be invoked. There can be no doubt that photon transfer occurs in both directions between two systems, but the general trend is a net transfer of such a nature as to reduce the temperature of a hot object and increase the temperature of a colder one. A simple analogy is that heat flows down a temperature hill. In case the two systems are isolated, heat loss to the surrounding space must also occur so that both objects experience a temperature reduction with time as the equilibrium of temperature is approached.

An entropy element is defined as a differential element of thermal energy divided by absolute temperature. The integrated form then describes the absolute entropy of the system. The constant of integration can be determined in such a way that the entropy increase varies from a negative infinity to a value of zero as a limit. The natural trend of an isolated system is such that the entropy increases with time. The limit of zero entropy applies for a condition of absolute zero. The absolute entropy is described as a product of Boltzmann's constant and the natural logarithm of a temperature element that varies as photon loss is experienced.

Our present desire is that of applying the law of entropy to the atom as a thermodynamic system. Since this has not been done, we wish to contrast the action in relation to that of the perfect gas of kinetic theory. In the perfect gas, no cohesive forces are assumed, and temperature is manifest only on the basis of random motion of molecules. This condition of disorder is reduced with time as the gas spreads to infinity under the action of the velocities existing and the lack of cohesive forces. Since this final state describes the limit of adjustment possible, no further reduction in disorder can occur. The absolute entropy is zero as a result.

A probability of unity describes a certainty. In this case the absolute entropy of a system can be described as the product of Boltzmann's constant and the natural logarithm of the probability of a given configuration existing in relation to all configurations possible. Since this ratio describes a fraction and the logarithm of a fraction is a negative quantity, the entropy increases from negative infinity as the condition of absolute order is approached. The final state is an absolute certainty described by a probability of unity. Since the natural logarithm of unity is zero, a zero value of entropy applies.

The atom is a universal system under the action of stabilizing central forces. In this case, photon activity is the only possible source of disorder that can be lost from the system. The atom consists of a heavy nucleus which is highly kinetic as indicated by its mass defect and various electron shells depending on the complexity of the atom considered. The fact that planetary electrons radiate photon energy in making transitions to lower orbits is sufficient to identify the atom as a thermodynamic system.

In a condition of complete isolation, the entropy of a system must increase. Then we consider an isolated atom at a condition in which no disturbance from external points are possible. In order to increase its entropy, the atom must radiate. This radiation must come from a planetary electron and result in a transition to an orbital level closer to the nucleus. Since this is not the limit of adjustment possible, further radiation must occur. This requires other electrons to make transitions to lower orbits. In view of the fact that the limit of adjustment is not reached until all of the radiation is emitted, the final state of the orbital electron is that of ingestion into the nucleus. The nucleus disrupts with the release of its energy in the form of mesons and other cosmic ray particles.

The attention span of the standard scientist is either forever or three weeks, whichever comes first. This action was first proposed by Milliken, Neher, and Pickering about 1942 as the source of primary cosmic rays. Their claim was that for some reason unknown, atoms in the solar winds of outer space disrupted with the release of their energies in the form of cosmic radiation. A flurry of articles pro and con followed for a few months and then passed into limbo. In any case, the possibility of a source of boundless energy to be released at the absolute zero of temperature is implied to exist. This energy is carried by high speed mass particles rather than being manifested in the form of heat.

Quantum theory has been cited endlessly to show the idiocy of the concept. The objection always given is that quantum state unity is the lowest orbital state. In the formation of neutrons and protons from electrons and positrons, quantum conditions applying are certainly lower than those applying to atomic states. The extension of the theory into the region of inverse quantum numbers has already been made. That no such limitation exists is indicated by the process of K-capture.

It is to be observed that the presence of antimatter is not necessary to release the total energy of matter. Mr. Spock, the science officer of the starship Enterprise, should be made aware of this fact. The reaction is not dependent on the dilithium crystal.

Since entropy in a system can only increase, a condition termed the heat death of the universe was assumed to be the final state. This applies in case all temperature differences are removed and no heat engines can operate. There is seen no condition in which an entropy reversal can occur.

As a matter of fact, an entropy reversal occurs in every case of nuclear disruption. The so-called dark spaces in the universe are areas that tend to absorb any radiation that enters. The absorption of photon energy must increase the disorder since photons were recognized as a source of disorder in the original atom.

Uncharged matter is composed of neutrons, protons, and electrons to provide electrical neutrality. Since the neutron is the basic unit, we limit our analysis to the neutron only. When it disrupts, a group of mesons are formed. These mesons are not stable. The meson may be neutral or it may have either a positive or a negative charge. In the case of the charged meson, it expels its charge and decays with the emission of radiant energy. The same fact applies to the neutral meson. Then the final effect is that of pure radiation.

Not so. We have again neglected the presence of the neutrino. In the ultimate disruption of a heavy star, there is a cloud of neutrinos heading for infinity and absorbing the original radiant energy of the matter from which the star was formed in the beginning. The cycle of death and rebirth of a star is assured, but not necessarily in the form of a black hole.

The concept of resonance is very important in impedance matching. We also observe that the transfer of energy between mass objects is best accomplished when the masses are equal. We introduce the concept of the matter wave as given by de Broglie. This forms an integral part of quantum theory but suffers from some strange interpretations.

In the case of the electron in a stationary orbit, the requirement is that the matter wave associated with the electron must be of such a nature that an integral number of wavelengths must apply. Instead of assigning a frequency of the proper magnitude to insure that the product of frequency and wave length described the orbital velocity, the internal frequency of the electron at rest was used. In this case, the supposed velocity of the matter wave varied between the velocity of light and infinity. Then we have the condition of a wave which outruns the particle which generates it. This idiocy has been carried on much too long and must be corrected. We state: The matter wave velocity of a particle in motion is the velocity of the particle which generates it. It is not a phase wave, never was a phase wave, and never will be a phase wave. The energy of the particle in motion is carried in the matter wave.

The nucleus of the atom is composed of protons and neutrons. As a matter of impedance matching, any particle or photon capable of affecting it must be at least the mass of the neutron. Then we must study the action of neutron induced fission in the case of U-235. We find that a slow neutron is required. Since the wavelength is known in terms of Planck's constant and momentum, the frequency can be calculated. The neutron velocity found by measurement to induce fission in U-235 is 2.2 X 10⁵ in the units of centimeters per second. The frequency corresponding is calculated to be 1.24 X 10¹³ which is definitely in the thermal range. The matter wavelength corresponding is 1.77 X 10^-8 centimeters. The wavelength for the photon with a matching frequency is 2.42 X 10^-3. As a comparison of energies carried by the wave, we find the ratio of the energy density carried in the neutron matter wave to that of the photon with equivalent frequency to be 2.58 X 10¹⁵. In this case it is certain that photon induced fission cannot be expected to occur.

The mechanism of induced fission depends on a condition of resonance. In the event that energy is supplied at a condition of resonance and in the absence of damping, the amplitude of the oscillation is increased without bound. Considering the limited range of nuclear forces, limits of stability are exceeded and the nucleus splits. The fact that two more or less equal parts results indicates that the particular mode of oscillation activated is the lowest possible in the present case.

The amplitude of the neutron matter wave is calculated to be 2.82 X 10^-9 centimeters. We must consider this degree of proximity to achieved before the neutron wave can be effective. It follows that the neutron must penetrate closer than the first electron orbit in order to be effective. Also it must be noted that the neutron acted only in the sense of a trigger mechanism. The energy release is a result of the fission fragments seeking a new condition of stability. Since the established thermal efficiency on the basis of mass loss is of the order of 0.1%, the reaction as an energy source must be considered extremely poor.

In the process of fusion, binding energies are increased. In this case orbital velocities in the atom must increase to compensate for the change. The result is the emission of thermal energy which can be applied externally, but as an overall effect, the particles are more tightly bound within the system and not available for any applications such as that of the generation of thrust. The energy yield as calculated on the basis of mass defects introduced is of the order of 0.4%. This is better than that to be expected from fission but not exactly overwhelming.

The matter-antimatter reaction of Star Trek has been proposed as a propulsion system. The basic difficulty is the fact that antimatter is in short supply and is too unstable to be stored for future use. The original concept was that contact between matter and antimatter would release a single burst of radiant energy equal to the total original energy. The test of proton-antiproton annihilation at Berkeley produced a slew of -mesons. This is exactly what is needed in the generation of thrust for star travel.

In the nuclear disruption process, ingestion of the planetary electrons in the atom takes the place of the missing antimatter. Proximity is already achieved since the neutrons and protons of the nucleus form a coherent group. Since the nucleus is stable only because of the proton-proton repulsion applying, removal of this source of stability by electron ingestion must result in a collapse followed by the disruption of the resulting neutron group into mesons. Since the energy involved is far in excess of the simple mass energy form, the reaction can be used as the basis of a thrust device that will permit humanity to travel beyond the farthest star.

Thoughts occur at random and should be recorded before they are lost. Stephen Hawking makes much of the uncertainty principle. It is important historically when one considers that particles were taken to be point masses. The discovery that they were distributed throughout a volume required the standard agonizing reappraisal which so often occurs in the field of physics. The added fact that the space of a particle is a part of the particle and extends to a theoretical infinity does not help to pin the particle down to a single point in space. The fact that there exists a certain uncertainty (a very neat play on words), is not to be denied, but even a good thing can be overdone. The description of matter as a probability density function leaves much to be desired. We may ask how much energy is released in the decay of such a function.

The author's self-image is that of a hard-headed realist. It is certain that such an attitude can impose limitations. One comment can be made: "An open mind does not necessarily mean a hole in the head, but some minds cannot be opened with anything less than a shotgun." Another of my supposed witticisms is my comment to the effect that there exists a valve between the mouth and the mind. When the mouth is open, the mind is closed. There may be more truth than poetry in that statement.

There is so much more involved in the universe than physical reality. What is the reality of thought? Who measures the mass of a dream? How wide is faith, hope or charity? What is the wavelength of pain? How does one measure the human capacity to wonder? When we consider the realm of thought and feeling, the physical universe appears as the least of the creations.

If it were not for the mystical realm of thought and feeling that is so much a part of being, the universe of physical reality could not be endured. There is no final escape from physical reality short of the death of the individual, but many people seek temporary relief in various ways. This may be a dependence on alcohol, drugs, sex, excessive eating or a myriad of other things.

My own desire is that of the development of star travel on a practical basis. Who wants to spend his entire life on a spaceship that goes so slowly that a thousand generations can pass before it gets anyplace? The existence of God is just as certain as my own existence, but I would be inclined to question the idea that He cannot reach the limits of His own creation. Then it follows that humanity can go where the Starship Enterprise has not gone before.

When the first Starship is built, if it leaves the earth at sunset, it will arrive at Arcturus by dawn. I want to land on the seventh planet of that system. I have the oddest feeling that this is the lost Eden of Adam and Eve. I want to verify that this is the Seventh Heaven of the ancients and God walks in the garden there.

I am sure that the reader will feel a sense of relief to know that I have not wasted all of my life on hard reality. Even so, certain things were necessary as preliminary. If one is to get anyplace in the universe by means of a rocket, the rate of expansion of the universe may be greater than the speed of the rocket. As the understatement of the century, we are inclined to doubt that such an expansion occurs. We conclude that the destination stays put.

The second barrier must be that of distance and the velocity of travel. If inertia in space is the same as that on earth, an acceleration rate of 32 feet per second each second would provide earth gravity. At this rate, it would take a year to reach the velocity of light. At the other end of the flight, another year would be required to decelerate. Since the nearest star system is about four light years away, if the velocity of light applied all the way, eight years would be wasted on nothing but travel there and back with no time to explore. The best thing to do is stay home.

There is left only the consideration of the fuel to be used in the development of thrust. The law of entropy states that a nucleus disrupts at absolute zero. Obviously this point of temperature is not indicated by the kinetic theory of gases. The kinetic theory value has been approached to a very small fraction of a degree, and no reaction has been observed.

There has been no consideration given to the necessity of impedance matching in the process of absorbing energy from the electron shells. The standard procedure for cooling is that of helium evaporation followed by adiabatic demagnetization. The helium evaporation removes only the kinetic energy of thermal agitation of molecules. In adiabatic demagnetization, the space is cooled, but the heat removed from the space must be absorbed by the matter present. In either case it is difficult to see that the electrons were affected at all.

In transferring heat out of orbital electrons, impedance matching requires a transfer of energy to be made to a particle of equal mass. Then there is required the presence of an associated electron flow to carry the absorbed energy out of the system. In terms of the transfer of matter wave frequencies associated with the electron in an orbit, these frequencies must be matched by the electrons in the flow. These principles were incorporated in a patent granted in 1972 and now expired.

There immediately appears a difficulty. In the study of electron drift velocities in metallic conduction, calculation shows that the drift velocity is of the order of 0.1 centimeters per second. The calculation of the velocity of thermal agitation for an electron at room temperature is of the order of 10⁷ centimeters per second. Then we must find a way to increase the drift velocity by eight orders of magnitude and reduce the resistance heating in the flow to a zero value.

The patent in question postulated the existence of superconductivity in very thin filaments of bismuth at room temperature. In theory, these filaments would act as electron wave guides in a manner of the optical wave guide for light and for the wave guide of electromagnetic theory. A former student, Ronald Bourgoin, achieved proof of principle in 1980. Recently, a group in Moscow at the Institute of Synthetic Polymer Materials, Russian Academy of Science, under the direction of L. N. Grigorov, announced superconductivity at room temperature in thin strips of polypropylene. A comparison with Bourgoin's results shows a striking similarity.

In theory, the resonance absorber could be applied to the problem of the disposal of radioactive wastes. If the reaction was not of sufficient intensity to cause complete disruption, only a very few of the planetary electrons would be absorbed by the nucleus. In this case, only a few of the existing protons in the nucleus would be bred to neutrons. This neutron excess would introduce an instability to expel a fragment of the nucleus to result in the formation of simpler nuclei. The half life to describe the decay of the radioactive wastes would be modified or simply brought to zero.