Since the human cannot accept reality, the popularity of any theory depends inversely on the amount of truth contained in it. This popularity may continue for a time until a simple soul who doesn't know better sees through the sham and looks at the naked truth. The fact that there was no deception intended makes the required correction more painful. This leads us to Carroll's Law of Calamity. This may be expressed: When the roof falls in, it does not stop short of the basement floor. This law applies to all of relativity theory.

If a concept is in error, there must be a point in history at which it first appeared. The basic error can be traced back two thousand years to the time of Euclid. The concept of a Euclidian space was a great convenience in the geometric sense but did not necessarily describe any physical fact.

The basic rule seems to be: If it is reasonable, throw it away and try something else. The idea that common sense can't be trusted permeates all of relativity theory. Let us suppose in the dawn of time, Oog, the son of Moog, walks upon the earth. As long as he walks on the surface and does not stub his toe on a rock, he progresses very well. If he tries to walk vertically downward into the solid earth, the earth blocks the way. If he tries to walk up a vertical cliff with his body on the horizontal, he finds that things don't act that way.

The first thing learned by Oog, the son of Moog, is that space has directional characteristics. There is an up and down. There is also a back and forth. He finds that he can't approach an object by walking away from it. He finds that he can't go to the left by sidling right. Further, he finds things hit the ground with a greater splat if dropped off a cliff than they do if he drops them from his hand on level ground. Then by what denial of reason is it possible for the philosophers to conclude that space is uniform, linear, homogeneous, and infinite. The conclusion is that an educated person must learn not to trust his own senses but to rely exclusively on what he is told by the experts.

At the present time, experimental fact provides no criterion for judgment. Everyone knows that protons and neutrons are formed from quarks. In this case the proton-antiproton annihilation experiment performed at Berkeley should produce six quarks. The fact that no particles other than -mesons were detected should be sufficient to negate the idea of the quark. Needless to say, it did no such thing. Not only do quarks exist, but they have various colors. We may wonder what ever happened to reality.

As a matter of reality, unstable positron-electron groups in various states of decay exist in untold numbers. The size of the group depends directly on the quantum number applying and inversely on the number of units in the group. Since spin is contracted with velocity, any spin can apply. Since spin can be positive or negative, spins can add or annul to give any combination within the limits of the group. The point to be made is that there exists no limit to the possible combinations. In this case, it is possible to conjecture the existence of any particle whatsoever and be sure that its counterpart can be found among the existing possibilities. It follows that particle theory provides a no-lose situation.

We have gone to considerable lengths to indicate the variable density of space and the tensions existing. Considering the magnitude of some of these and the extension of the effect beyond the surface of the object generating them, the assumption that forces are carried by particle transfer seems unnecessary, extraneous, and immaterial. The reality of the existence of gluons, gluinos, gravitons, and gravitinos can be questioned. Unless their existence can be shown in terms of valid solutions to the equation of physical creation, they have no reality and serve only to complicate the already over-complicated field of physics. The law of KISS must be applied.

The Pauli exclusion principle is that in atomic orbits, electrons must differ by at least one quantum number. This has been used to explain the nature of electron orbits quite successfully. In the creation of neutrons and protons from electrons and positrons, the exclusion principle does not seem to apply. The distinction may be made on the basis of the magnitude of the forces involved. In the case of very strong forces, certain tendencies to follow selection patterns may be overcome. This may be the reason that in the case of ß-decay, the preferred tendency is that of the formation of the proton as opposed to the antiproton.

The classification of forces as given in unified field theory has no meaning. It is true that gravitational forces exist. It is also true that electromagnetic forces exist. These facts were in evidence long before the work of Einstein. Since Einstein could not accept the variable velocity of light, his effort to unify gravitation and electromagnetics was doomed to failure before it was started. The only link between the two depends on the variable velocity of light.

The strong force of unified field theory is that which binds the particles in the nucleus into a coherent group. This force is that of a potential generated by particle spin. The force form is that of inverse cube. In the study of the stability of systems, with such a force form, stability can be shown to apply only in the event that the particles in the group have essentially the same mass. This differs from the action of the inverse square law of gravitation or that applying to electrical charges. A system under the inverse square law can be stable only in the case of a heavy mass center with light orbiting objects. Good examples of these are the gravitational planetary systems and atoms of matter which consist of heavy nuclei with much lighter electrons in planetary orbits.

The weak force is a complete misnomer which has no reality of existence. It is invoked in the decay of nuclei. Heavy nuclei tend to decay spontaneously by the weakening of binding forces as the nucleus becomes more complex. The external environment of photon activity acts as a stabilizing effect but is subject to statistical variations in intensity. As a matter of random chance, the reduction in the stabilizing background results in a spontaneous decay. There is no need to invoke a force to cause it.

The inverse cube spin force is active in the case of any rotating mass. It applies as one effect to be considered in the calculation of the orbit of Mercury. There is an inverse fourth power force associated with dipole on dipole. These forces are of short range in relation to those associated with the inverse square, but they are active in determining orientations as well as binding effects between closely associated particles. Since spin forces are associated with viscosity, they certainly apply in the formation of aggregate mass systems of the nature of solids, liquids, and gases. Orbits in the case of the inverse cube law of force are virtual rather than real. The motion of atoms in a solid structure is that of a vibration in a straight line about a fixed point.

The decay times of unstable units are velocity dependent. Although the half-life of the -meson is only 2 microseconds at rest, they remain stable long enough to reach the earth from the point of origin of their generation at a distance roughly that of 100 miles elevation. The variation of force with velocity requires that these particles be subject to no internal disruptive force as long as the velocity of light can be maintained. The interpretation of the effect as a variation in time is most unfortunate.

Measurement is able to provide a number, but fails to reveal any interpretation. Interpretation depends on theory which may not exist at the time of the experiment. The general procedure of science is that of experimentation followed by the development of theory to fit the results. In every case, the preconceived notion, which is the bane of all science and the basic point of human failure, taints every interpretation. Thus we find that the interpretation of the Pound-Rebka experiment, the Ives experiment, the measured mass increase in the electron, and all measurements by means of the atomic clock are biased in favor of relativity simply because that theory was already in existence. The most difficult thing that can be imagined in the field of science is that of being able to eliminate the preconceived notion. This also played a role in the interpretation of the Michelson-Morley experiment. As a matter of fact, all of the experiments mentioned can be interpreted as being directly in opposition to the Einstein results. The fact that Einstein was a genius has nothing to do with experiment. Even a genius can be wrong.

The philosophy of genius as accepted at the present time is in error. If a man can rig a theory that is easily understood, he is no great shakes. If he can rig a more difficult theory, that makes him smart. If he can rig a theory that even he cannot understand, he is a genius. It is certain that Einstein qualifies. The present author is convinced that Einstein did not understand his own theory. If he had, he would not have been able to believe a word of it.

The weakness of the unified field theory is expressed by the invention of the virtual particle. Since this particle is undetectable by means of any instrument, it can have any set of characteristics required to fill in a gap in theory. The field of particle theory is just as safe as that of cosmology. Anybody can claim anything without any possibility of disproof. What ever happened to Occam's Razor?

The author has always wondered if all of the particles of unified field theory were proposed in terms of the tongue-in-cheek approach. The trouble with the tongue in the cheek is that it has to be between the teeth to get there. A stiff jolt of reality may result in a badly bitten tongue.

Of course there is always the possibility that the author of the theory is indulging in the gentle art of leg-pulling. Considering the fact that quarks come in six flavors and that each flavor comes in three colors, the proverbial leg that was pulled must now be at least a mile long.

Reality may be of no more help than fantasy in explaining the nature of the universe. We consider the nature of the quantum energy form. This requires an inverse relationship in which the greatest energy is associated with the smallest size. The same fact applies in contraction theory in which the neutron is very small in relation to the size of any one electron or positron in the free state. According to the principles of contraction theory, the radius of a group is directly proportional to the quantum number applying and inversely proportional to the number of particles.

In the study of inverse quantum numbers, the range of possible integer values is from unity to infinity with the value of infinity applying to the free state. It appears that quantum integers in excess of ten would make orbital conditions impossible. The value unity is the limit implying that all radiation has been expelled from the group. Remembering that reciprocals apply, the fractional quantum number still takes the value unity to describe the massless condition of the neutrino. The number itself and not its reciprocal applies to the description of the radius of the group.

Now we consider the size of the unit consisting of the number of positrons and electrons comprising the universe. If we assume a value of 10⁸², even in quantum state 10, the radius of the universe is of the order of 10^-81 centimeters.

We have not proved or disproved the theory of the Big Bang. We have not proved or disproved that the universe will end in the Big Crunch. We have shown that by extending the principles of quantum theory, the particle from which the universe developed could be quite small to say the least.

If the black hole exists, it cannot be described by the principles of general relativity. It may be assumed that the end result of the action of a black hole is the formation of a unit such as that described above. There is no claim made that such is the case.

Not all radiation is composed of photons. In the formation of a circular planetary orbit on a given radius, a part of the kinetic energy of free fall must be lost. In the case of the circular orbit, exactly one-half of the energy of free fall from infinity must be accounted for in terms of radiation of energy into the field. This must be stored as field energy that may be released under certain conditions. It follows that there exists a stored potential mass in the field.

As long as the field remains static, this mass is bound in place and not subject to release. In the case of an object in free fall in a static field, no mass is released from the field to augment that of the falling mass. The mass of an object in free fall is constant in spite of the acceleration which occurs.

The stored mass can be released from the field only by the collapse of the field in which it is stored. The effect of the time varying field applies to a particle accelerator. Then we conclude that a particle retarded below the velocity of free fall in a field radiates and loses mass as a result. The mass of a particle in free fall in a field is constant. A mass increase can occur only in the case of a collapsing field which drives the particle to a velocity in excess of that of free fall. Since this is true for gravitational systems as well as for quantum particles, photon activity as such is a very insignificant part of the total.

The first recorded attempt to measure the velocity of light was made by Galileo. The equipment consisted of one dark night and two men on adjacent hilltops with shuttered lanterns. The first man opened the shutter on his lantern. When the second man saw the signal, he opened the shutter of his own lantern to send the signal back. The double distance between hilltops divided by the lapsed time was supposed to provide a measure of the velocity of light. Human response time, being what it is, rendered the measurement a bit uncertain.

The first real measurement of the velocity of light was made by Olaus Roemer, a Danish astronomer. In a paper published in 1675, he announced his findings on the basis of the changing time of eclipse of Jupiter's moons. His calculation indicated that light traveled with the velocity of 2.26 X 10⁵ kilometers per second, which is within 25 percent of the presently accepted value.

In 1926, Albert A. Michelson (of Michelson-Morley fame) made the first accurate measurement of the velocity of light. He used a rotating drum with a number of plane mirrors mounted symmetrically to flash a beam of light across a distant reflector. This reflector returned the flash to another face of the rotating drum. The reflected ray could be seen only if there existed the proper synchronization between the rate of rotation of the drum and the velocity of light. The value obtained by this method was 299.797 kilometers per second with a probable error less than 4 kilometers per second. The precision of the method resulted in the resounding comment attributed to Michelson: "The future of science lies in the sixth decimal place," with the implication that all basic science was known at the time and the only task remaining was that of a refinement of the measurements to be made.

The Michelson-Morley experiment was an application of the Michelson interferometer. The experiment was designed to measure the velocity of earth with respect to an external space which was assumed at rest. The results have been discussed.

The law on entropy as applied to any universal system requires an increase with time. Since the atom is a thermodynamic system under the action of internal forces, its final state of absolute order is that in which every particle of matter has lost its internal energy by photon emission and is traveling with the velocity of light. We recognize this state as that of a hypothetical neutrino. In this state of existence, a condition of absolute zero applies internally. We have said that nuclear disruption must occur with an entropy reversal long before this state is reached, but it is evident that the law of entropy as applied to the atom requires that it should be inherently unstable and subject to decay with the release of its energy.

The action of disruption occurs spontaneously in outer space and results in the release of primary cosmic ray particles of various types. It appears that such a reaction is sporadic and incomplete and occurs at such widely separated points that no interaction can occur. Under such conditions, there can exist no possibility of a self-sustaining reaction.

We return to the analysis expansion as given in the case of disrupting the neutron back to the original particles. In the primary step in which mesons are formed, the sum of the meson volumes is not described by the factor of 10¹⁰, but it is certain that a very large increase in volume occurs. If the general gas laws have any validity, this action must be accompanied by the absorption of radiant energy. Then we observe that the disruption process results in a very significant cooling.

In the process of fusion, we found that internal forces were increased and resulted in emission of radiant energy. Then it follows that we can expect the reverse effect to apply when disruption occurs. It follows that the extension of the general gas laws into the study of contractions and disruptions as associated with the basic particles is to be expected. Considering the energies involved, the effects of cooling and heating should be enormous in relation to that of expansions and compressions in a gas.

The point to be made is that there is implied the existence of a self-sustaining reaction. If the collapse and disintegration of the atom was instigated by cooling and results in more cooling, assuming the proper controls to be applied, it can be maintained at any desired level by the regulation of the flow rate in the introduction of the fuel.

One thing leads to another. It must be pointed out that atoms in the solid state do not enter into the disruption process. The mutual support of surrounding atoms is sufficient to prevent disruptions from occurring. The reacting fuel must be introduced in a finely divided or gaseous state. In this case we can hope to contain the reaction within a solid chamber and direct the particles rearward for the production of thrust for space flight.

Attainment of this goal depends on the development of an electronic device termed the resonance absorber. Principles of impedance matching demand that planetary electrons in their condition of resonance in atomic orbits are best affected by external electrons, the resonances of which can be matched to the orbital resonances. This requires a flow of electrons at much higher speeds than those applying to the ordinary conduction process. The implication is that at least part of the circuit must be in the superconducting state. As a matter of simplicity of design, superconductivity at room temperature is most desirable.