CHAPTER FOUR
Room Temperature Superconductivity

1. The Wave Equation

Since the simplest unit of stable matter is the electron, we observe that an internal frequency exists. When the particle is put into motion this internal frequency exhibits an external manifestation called the matter wave. Then we can say that as far as external effects are concerned, the electron can be described by means of its matter wave.

The manifestation of the external frequency requires a reduction in the internal frequency of such a nature that the sum of the two should be a constant. Therefore, the matter wave frequency increases with the velocity of the electron.

In reference to the assumed velocity of the matter wave, there is found in the literature another classic example of idiocy. The matter wave is quite real as evidenced by the existence of the electron microscope. In a wave motion, the wave Velocity is given by the product of the wave length and the wave frequency. In the case of the matter wave velocity, the wave length was multiplied by the internal frequency of the electron at rest. The resulting error gave a nonexistent velocity that Varied from the velocity of light to infinity. Then we have a wave velocity that outruns the particle which generates it.

The trouble with error is that it gets into the literature. If it is in print, it must be true. Instead of observing the error as an error, and taking steps to correct it, some other idiot tries to explain how it can be true in spite of the obvious contradiction. In this way, the error is compounded endlessly and carried on forever. Let it be stated now and for all time to come: The Velocity of the matter wave is the velocity of the particle which generated it. The matter wave is not a phase wave carrying no energy. It is a real honest to goodness wave motion associated with the moving particle and carrying energy of its own.

At the present time there exists a tremendous flap about the possibilities of room temperature superconductivity. President Reagan has stated publicly that the United States will be among the leaders in the development Since the present author has a patent (U. S. Patent N umber 3664143) that incorporates the principles of room temperature superconductivity, it is to be wondered if there is any effort to be made. The patent was granted in 1972.

The reason that present attempts to achieve room temperature superconductivity on a practical basis have been so limited is the fact that no one understands the problem. No scientist knows what an electron is or how to control its action in such a way that it shows no resistance in the process of carrying a current. The efforts of the entire scientific community are directed toward a search for a magical conductor This is no more than the search for the fabled

"Philosopher's Stone" in a new age and in a new guise. It is certain that they will never solve the problem until they understand the principles involved. In the present treatise, we have gone to great extremes to emphasize the nature and the configuration of the electron. Since the electron carries the current in a solid conductor, we must know in general how many electrons are involved, how fast they are going, and why there is a resistance to the flow.

We have mentioned the wave equation because the existence of the electron is postulated by a solution of it. Since the electron is a stable wave motion closed upon itself, the motion of spin is one inherent characteristic. When we examine the interior of a good electrical conductor such as copper, we find electrons in the free state.

The best estimate is that there exists one free electron per atom in copper. These free electrons constitute what is commonly called the "Electron Gas."

The name is in error. A gas can be compressed. Since electron-electron repulsion is so tremendous, and since the Volume of the conductor is fixed, the action is more that of a liquid. In order to avoid all difficulties in terminology, we will refer to it as the electron fluid. In general, fluids have an internal friction called viscosity. This is manifest in the case of a motion of flow. For an electric current flow, the free electrons must move in order that the current should exist. The average velocity of the electrons in order that the current may be established is termed the drift velocity. In the metallic conduction process it is found that the drift velocity is of the order of a tenth of a centimeter per second.

It is certain that the electrical resistivity is related to the Viscosity of the electron fluid. When the coefficient of viscosity is calculated, it is found to be equal to the total electron spin per unit volume. This is a most surprising result since it says that if the spin of the electron can be negated, the flow could be made to occur without resistance.

Since the electron moves along its own axis of spin, but does not care whether it is backing up or moving forward, in theory if we pair electrons with opposite spins in the flow, and keep them paired as the flow continues, no electrical resistance would exist. This is the entire problem in a nutshell and it has nothing whatsoever to do with the nature of the conductor.

If we are interested in experimental evidence of the existence of zero viscosity, we refer to the strange behavior of helium. Helium is ordinarily a gas, but can be liquefied if the temperature is made low enough. At some temperature slightly above absolute zero, it enters a phase of existence known as helium II. This occurs when helium atoms group themselves in pairs with opposite spins. In this state no internal viscosity exists. This fact may serve to indicate the necessity of pairing electrons, but it gives no insight into any method whereby pairing can be accomplished.

That may be true, but at least it provides us with some insight into the relationship between superconductivity and the temperature. The basic measure of temperature is that of photon activity. In the case of the electron fluid at room temperature it is found that the electrons are kicked around at random by interaction with thermal photons. The equipartition of energy between the thermal photon and the electron is such that the temperature of one is the temperature of the other. Then we may speak of the thermal electron. The average velocity of agitation of the thermal electron at room temperature is about 10' centimeters per second. This predominates over the drift velocity by about eight orders of magnitude. In order to achieve a pairing in the flow and maintain it with time, the effects of the thermal agitation must be overcome.

2. Principles of Superconductivity

There are two classes of superconductors recognized at the present. The elements that become superconductors are termed "soft" superconductors. These are characterized by the fact that no current exists in the interior. The current is carried in a surface sheath that is estimated to be about IO^-5 centimeters in thickness. We are immediately struck by the fact that if this is the case the electron velocity in the flow must be greatly increased over that applying to the ordinary conduction process. We conclude that the superconducting electron is a fast electron. The first indication of the necessity of pairing electrons with opposite spins came from a group at the University of Illinois under the direction of John Bardeen. This led to a Nobel Prize much later. The work is limited to the low temperature region, and appears to be in applicable to room temperature superconductivity. Even so, it must be considered as a tremendous advance in a field so filled with error. One wag came up with a corollary to all of the various theories concerning superconductivity. This corollary was to the effect that all theories of superconductivity were in error. Bardeen's theory required that lattice forces were instrumental in the pairing process. These can predominate over thermal disturbances only at very low temperatures.

The "hard" superconductors are alloys, usually of niobium and tin. They differ from the soft superconductors in the fact that the current is carried by filaments of limited sire that form spontaneously in the interior of the conductor. Also the temperature of operation is higher.

Both of these facts are pertinent to the present analysis. The change from the surface conductivity to that of the filament resulted in a significant increase in the Velocity of the electron in the flow. This increase in velocity automatically insures that the paired electrons in the flow are less susceptible to thermal interference. This permits the superconducting alloys to operate at higher temperatures than those applying to the soft superconductors. It must be assumed that the electrons automatically pair themselves as they form the filament.

The next logical step must be concerned with the question of artificial filaments. We know that a fast electron is required and we know that the transverse dimensions must be limited. If the diameter of the filament is too small to permit the flow electron to respond in the transverse direction and if the flow velocity in the filament itself is sufficiently high, any effect of thermal agitation cannot be felt, no matter what the external temperature may be. Now we are ready to conduct a materials search.

Since a fast electron is required, the so-called "good conductors" are rejected. Then we look at the semi-metals, in which the prime example appears to be bismuth. It is assumed in the literature that at room temperature only one atom in a million provides a free electron to act as a carrier of electric current. In spite of this fact, the resistivity of bismuth is increased only by a factor of ten over that of copper it follows that bismuth in the normal state of existence is not far removed from superconductivity.

In any conductor, we can postulate that pairing and dissociation of pairs occurs at random. In the good conductors, the drift velocity is negligible in determining the pairing process. In bismuth, the pairing process is quite significant because of the relatively high drift velocity in the flow.

One known application of bismuth is that of heat transfer by means of an electric current flow. In the study of thermodynamics, acceleration and deceleration of matter are not considered. In the study of electricity, heat transfer by means of a Peltier loop is well known. If we have an increase in velocity of flow of the electron, this increase must result in the absorption of thermal energy at the junction. At the opposite junction, the retardation of the electrons in the flow results in the release of the thermal energy originally absorbed. A refrigerator patent based on the use of bismuth was granted at least a hundred years ago. If the resistance heating can be made negligible, an effective heat transfer device can result.

It bismuth filaments in the range of diameters of 10^-6 to lO^-7 centimeters can be manufactured and maintained, superconductivity at room temperature can be achieved. Since the electron in motion has a matter wave manifestation, the process of analogy can be applied. The electromagnetic wave guide is well known and very effective in the process of propagating waves in the ten centimeter to three centimeter band. The optical fiber does the same thing for light in the visible region of the photon spectrum. Since the optical wave length is much shorter than that of the electromagnetic wave, the size of the optical wave guide is reduced to correspond. Now we take the final step and consider the matter wave guide of the electron in motion. The wave length of the electron is variable with velocity, so that Various sizes of wave guides might be considered depending on the electron velocity desired, but it seems that anything larger than 10^-5 centimeters may not be appropriate.

Now the nature of the problem becomes that of the manufacturing process. Since such a filament can not support itself, and must be protected from the environment, it must be created within a carrier of some kind. Experimental work was conducted by Ronald C. Bourgoin, presently of Raleigh, North Carolina. The first step was that of dissolving bismuth powder in the molten state in a carrier of epoxy resin. Filaments were created by the use of a high Voltage across two platinum needles in contact in the molten mixture. When a current was established one needle was slowly retracted as the current continued to flow. The fact that the epoxy itself was not conducting was demonstrated by the fact that any sudden motion would lose the current completely.

Filament lengths were not great, being in general not more than one centimeter. After the filament was formed, the epoxy was permitted to harden, forming a protective environment and a permanent filament within it. The two platinum needles were left in place so that electrical contact with the filament could be made. In the testing of the filaments, the applied voltage was started at zero and gradually increased. At about three volts, the current suddenly increased and the voltage dropped. Since some voltage is required to accelerate the electrons in the filament, it is not reasonable to expect zero voltage to apply across the filament at any time that current is flowing. Also, the resistance of the leads must be taken into account. The fact of room temperature superconductivity is indicated by the increase In current with the corresponding drop in voltage. Currents up to three amperes could be sent through the filaments with no sign of damage.

Recently, filaments were made by Mr. Bourgoin at Duke University. The original findings were duplicated. As a matter of additional testing, one of the observers wanted to know if there was a limit to the current carrying capacity of the filament. The fuse on the power supply blew at eight amperes. The filament was not affected but the clip lead connectors were hot. The comment by one "expert" was that superconductivity did not apply because no superconducting filament that size could carry so much current without burning out. This, by the way, is another classicexample of the scientific attitude. It takes a real scientist to look at a miracle and say it didn't happen.

3. The Release of Nuclear Energy

Fusion energy is widely touted as the energy of the future. Fusion energy is released in the action of the "Hydrogen Bomb': but the reaction depends upon the application of a trigger mechanism based on the use of fission. The principle assumed is that the application of heat to the various isotopes of hydrogen will result in a fusion to heavier atoms. This, in turn, will release more heat to cause other hydrogen isotopes to fuse.

Controlled fusion has not been achieved in spite of the fact that efforts have continued since 1955 in fact. proof of principle has not yet been achieved. In the hydrogen bomb there is no clear cut indication that the fusion process is triggered by the heat released. If the uranium in the trigger mechanism fissions down as far as iron. about fifty excess neutrons per atom are released. It may be that the excess neutrons cause the fusion of the hydrogenous materials to occur in any event, fusion energy is not applicable to space propulsion in any practical way.

Star Trek's space ship, the Enterprise, uses the matter-antimatter reaction to provide thrust. For those who may not know, the atoms of antimatter are composed of antiprotons and antineutrons to form the nucleus. Antielectrons replace the orbital electrons. The antiproton is a negatively charged proton. The discussion of the proton structure as given earlier permits such a possibility, but whether or not the unit is sufficiently stable to form negatively charged nuclei is a matter of conjecture. Since the neutron has no charge, we can speculate that spin reversal applies to the antineutron. The antielectron is a positron. In any case, all masses are positive as in ordinary matter. When an atom of matter interacts with its counterpart atom of antimatter, both are supposed to be destroyed with the release of the total energy involved.

There are two small problems: antimatter seems to be in short supply. Also, the required catalyst is the "Dilithium Crystal" which can't be found. Perhaps we should ask Mr. Speck of the Star Ship Enterprise.

The matter-antimatter reaction was tested at Berkley in the form of the proton ant i proton interaction. The two particles destroyed each other as expected, but no burst of electromagnetic radiation resulted. Instead, a whole slew of -mesons were released. This is exactly what we want as the basis of a space drive.

The point of the development hinges on the fact that the presence of antimatter is not required. If an atom below iron on the atomic scale can be made to ingest its planetary electrons into the nucleus, each nuclear proton would become a neutron in the process. The removal of the existing proton-proton repulsions must cause the collapse of the resulting neutron group under the action of spin forces. The final effect is that of destroying the neutrons themselves with the release of -mesons in countless numbers.

The process of K-capture is well known. It is possible for an electron in the first atomic shell (The K-shell) to be ingested into the nucleus. When this occurs, a nuclear proton becomes a neutron so that a slightly modified atom results. In order to generate more insight into the possible reactions, we consider the primary cosmic rays from space.

A study of the limits of stability of the atom in general shows it depends upon its environment. Heavy atoms are formed under extreme conditions of pressure and temperature in the interior of stars. The stability, at least in part, depends upon the mutual supporting effect of adjacent atoms. Isolated atoms from the solar winds, wandering into the far ranges of interstellar space are subject to a spontaneous disruption with a release of their energy in the form of cosmic ray particles.

Another phenomenon of the scientific community is that of the attention span which applies. If someone pops up with a new idea, scientists in general latch onto it with a hysterical enthusiasm that lasts forever or for three weeks, whichever comes first. The suggestion of spontaneous disruption of isolated atoms in the solar winds of outer space was made in 1942. There resulted a flurry of articles pro and con, but nobody ever got around to inquiring into the decay mechanism.

In order to examine the decay mechanism by means of which primary cosmic rays from space are generated, we must turn to the field of thermodynamics. Here, as inall fields of human endeavor, we find superficial understanding and half-truths. The concept of the absolute zero of temperature as found there applies only to space There is another absolute zero that can be defined which applies to the interior of matter. For the record. if any is to be kept, the principles of thermodynamics were developed long before it was known that matter had an interior.

The primary carrier of temperature is the photon. A secondary carrier of temperature is a particle in motion. As examples, we speak of thermal photons and thermal electrons. Since a photon has a frequency, it appears that temperature is directly related to frequency.

In case of an electron at rest, no external effect of frequency is apparent, but the internal frequency is at its maximum value. In this case, the interior of the electron is at its maximum temperature with a zero temperature manifestation externally.

When the electron is put into motion, an external frequency manifestation results. This is measured in terms of the frequency of the matter wave. It follows that the electron in motion has a temperature manifestation which increases with velocity. Since this happens at the expense of the internal temperature, we conclude that the internal temperature of the elect ron is zero only when the particle travels at the velocity of light.

The atom is a Very complex thermodynamic system. The basic law of thermodynamics is that of the equalization of temperature. We may slate. any thermodynamic system tends to reach a state of temperature equalization with its surroundings. Now if we consider an atom in outer space with no other supporting atoms to provide a solid structure, we must ask the temperature environment of the space.

The environment to all intents and purposes is that of absolute zero. If the atom is to reach a corresponding temperature, it must radiate all of its photon energy. The atomic structure most closely associated with the external environment is that of the electron shells. Any radiation from an outer shell results in an electron making a transition to an orbit nearer the nucleus. This will affect a lower shell in turn. In the extreme condition, not only K-Capture will result, but also the outer shell is to the limit that all of the electrons are ingested in to the nucleus. In general, we may expect anything from a partial disruption to a total disruption of the nucleus. In the most extreme case, we can expect the disruption of the nuclear particles themselves with the release of high velocity mesons.