CHAPTER THREE
Space Travel

1. The Expanding Universe

The theory of the expanding universe led the author to develop and expound his theory of the expanding head. Let us consider the following train of thought. If the universe is expanding, the expansion applies to our own galaxy and to our own solar system. As time passes, the sun and the moon must become more remote from our own earth. In this case the apparent size of these objects must be reduced unless they expand in the proper proportion to retain the present angle of view. If the expansion applies to these objects, it must also apply to the earth. Since we see no change in the relative size of the earth, the expansion applies to us. If it applies to us, it must apply to our heads. If the expansion does not occur, the man who rigged the theory may be scratching his head six inches from the scalp and not even know it.

There exists no acceptable proof that the universe is in the process of expansion. Let us consider a photon. This is a mass entity having a certain amount of energy as described by its frequency. In any interaction that serves to change the direction of the photon, there must be present in the field an index of refraction other than unity. This index of refraction requires that energy must be scattered from the photon into the field if the photon is deviated from its straight line path.

Since the photon is a mass entity, any gravitational field will deflect it. Each deflection will result in an energy loss which appears as a frequency reduction in the photon. Considering the history of a beam of light originating on a remote star, the number of gravitational interactions in coming to the earth from the source would depend directly on the distance of travel. This conclusion assumes that matter is distributed more or less uniformly throughout the space. This latter point seems to be the case experimentally.

The present interpretation of the expanding universe invokes the Doppler principle only. Investigators are aware that a ray of light is deviated by a gravitational field, but they seemed to have missed completely the fact that deviation results in a loss of energy from the beam. It seems to be a case of the blind leading the blind. We can only state that the red shift in the spectrum of radiation from distant stars is no proof that the universe is expanding.

Now that there is no proof that the universe is expanding, the Big Bang theory may be open to question. But, the howlers howl, the spectrum of radiation found by Penzias and Wilson of Bell Labs is that remaining from the Big Bang, in reference to that interpretation, we consider the range of frequencies of the radiation scattered into the field from the deflected photons originating on distant stars. We find that there is no reason to invoke the Big Bang in order to account for the existence of the spectrum of Penrias and Wilson. It seems that "what every schoolboy knows" may be gravely in doubt. Also, the "established facts" may not be too well established after all.

In the case of the toroidal configuration of matter, calculation shows that the energy density in the interior is a constant at all points. In the case of the universe it appears that in spite of the enormous distances and extreme variations involved, the distribution of mass is more or less uniform in space as an average. Then we may take this fact to indicate that the universe has toroidal configuration and is stable as a result.

If our destination stays put, at least we can hope to get to it. Even so, there are certain hazards to be considered. The velocity of light in the vicinity of earth is a very real barrier. In the terminology of "Star Trek", this would be Warp 1.

Analogy is sometimes a valid teaching method. If a plane travels at the velocity of sound in the atmosphere, it is said to be at Mach 1. At one time the experts were giving solemn assurances to the effect that no aircraft would ever exceed this velocity because the drag rise in this region of flight is so extreme that frictional forces would tear the plane apart. The Mach effect is in perfect analogy with the Einstein factor as applied to space in which the Velocity of sound is replaced with the velocity of light.

The atmosphere becomes more tenuous with elevation, posing no barrier at all at a distance of a hundred miles. The energy density of space falls off inversely as the fourth power of the radius vector. In a distance of ten radii, the energy density of the space of the earth is reduced to a value of one ten thousandth part of that applying to the surface. When we get far enough out from the presence of large mass systems there can be no limit to the velocity which can be attained. Again we state: There can exist no Velocity barrier in outer space.

If our destination stays put and no velocity or acceleration barrier exists after we get far enough removed from the solar system, the development of space travel ought to be a breeze. As a matter of fact, that was the easy part. All we had to do was to show that all of our presently accepted universal theory was in error. Now we must get down to the practical considerations of developing a rocket fuel that is adequate for the job.

Since we must assume that there exists no extra-universal source of energy and no "Dean Drive" to turn rotary motion into linear thrust, we must use the energy that is available. We have no intention of trying to second guess the Lord God in the process of creation. Even so, it is necessary to turn to the process of the creation of matter to find out how much energy is involved and how to release and control it for application. This apparently, was not adequately covered in the Biblical story of Genesis. In fact, Genesis did not even mention the Big Bang. We are inclined to wonder if there is any significance to the oversight.

2. Children of Light

The present work contains no mathematical analysis. This was done in accordance with the knowledge that if any mathematical development requires three steps, the reader is lost by the time he gets to the second one.

To return to the photon, we have found that it carries mass of its own. The wave equation in conjunction with quantum energy requirements gives a length of one wavelength and also a circumference of one wavelength. One half of its total mass energy is that of forward motion, and one half is due to spin it follows that the photon is a cylindrical mass form with forward motion and spin. The spin may be either right or left with respect to its forward motion.

The photon is not a closed entity Any interaction can scatter energy from it. On the atomic scale it is also a large entity. As an example a photon in the Visible range of light may affect as many as 10⁹ atoms in a solid structure. This is 1000 million, if anyone wants to ask.

The photon carries momentum. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is not possible to measure location and momentum at the same time. If the momentum is distributed throughout the entire volume, if one measures the entire momentum, the whole volume must be considered. Since the volume spreads all over creation, it is impossible to say that it is located at a point.

It seems that the meaning of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle can be reinterpreted to support the present conclusion of the nature of the photon. If it has aperture and length, the momentum is not located at a single point. If a single point is assumed for the structure, no momentum can be measured. It seems that the significance of the uncertainty principle has been highly overrated. It simply says that the photon has volume. Calculation shows that the energy and thus the mass is distributed uniformly throughout the structure. The same fact applies to the distribution of momentum.

Now we are at the point of creating matter out of radiation. All we have to do is catch a photon and bend it into a circle so that is ends up chasing its tail. That motion which was spin now becomes the motion of vortex flow. The forward motion that kept the photon heading down the road now becomes the motion of spin as the photon chases its own tail around the closed loop.

Let us not be carried away so quickly. Just any old photon will not do. Since the original photon was an uncharged mass entity, we must assume that there exists a gravitational force tending to collapse the unit. In relation to the condition of stability invoked in the creation of protons and neutrons, we find that the limit of stability is so narrow that all positrons and electrons are identical in mass.

The idea that the photon is an electromagnetic wave is an assumption imposed by the fact that they both travel at the velocity of light. Whether the photon can be described in terms of electric and magnetic vectors is open to question. The fact remains that photons carry no net charge. Yet, when one photon formed a closed toroid it ended up with a negative charge The other type of photon ended up with a positive charge.

The question of creation of charge can be answered only by observing the fact that the vortex didn't exist until the ring was closed. Further, the fact of opposite spins with respect to the Vortex flow requires charge opposition to apply to the two units. Then we state: The charge on the positron or electron is associated with the vortex. Opposite electrical charges are determined by right or left spins with respect to the given vortex flow.

Every time we get closer to the secrets of creation, we find ourselves farther away. We find that charge is a function of the double motion rather than an entity in its own right The creation of charge also imposed a magnetic dipole effect. The magnetic dipole is oriented along the polar axis which is the axis of spin. Dipoles of positron and electron are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

When the Lord God got around to making the electron, He did not take a chunk of mass, a chunk of electricity and a chunk of magnetism and throw them all together and say, "Now you are an electron." The same fact applies to the positron and the protons and neutrons from which stable matter is formed. Since one region of the photon spectrum is that of visible light, and all matter is created from photons, we can state with absolute authority that we are the children of light.

Scientists in the present day are permitted a touch of mysticism. This is a healthy trend, but not carried far enough. One interpretation from the ancient Hebrew is that God is the Light (Elohim). Then we can say that God created all things by means of Himself. Let the present writer suggest that this is about as close to the understanding of creation as the human will ever get.

As an incidental fact, the search for the magnetic monopole is pointless. There is no such unit. It has been postulated to exist at various times and even reported to have been detected. The creation of the electric charge was shown to result in a magnetic effect, but this occurred as a dipole pair and not as a single unit.

3. The Energy of Matter

The neutron is corn posed of 1860 electron mass units. The existing mass defect is equivalent to 20 electron mass units. It follows that the total number of charges present is 1860. The electrical energy of a single electron can be described in terms of its mass energy equivalent. The mass energy for the neutron can then be described as the summation of the mass energies of its parts. This is not the case for the electrical energy of the group. Since this increases as the square of the number of charges, it is necessary to conclude that the energy of the neutron is 1860 times its equivalent mass energy.

Experimental fact always has the last word, but that word may require some interpretation. Protons and neutrons as well as a whole mess of unstable particles of various kinds and descriptions can be produced by the interaction of positrons and electrons beams in a Betatron Collider. The collapsing field accelerates electrons in one direction and positrons in the opposite direction around the loop to interact with each other at the other end of the diameter These particles require tremendous energies in order that particles such as protons and neutrons may be formed.

The interpretation that the process of collision annihilates both positrons and electrons and liberates the required energy to form protons and neutrons and the unstable particles found, is pure drivel occasioned by ignorance of the structure of the heavy particles. There is one point of significance, and that is the energy required. If so much energy is required in the formation of the neutron, then that energy must be stored in the structure. If so, when the structure is disrupted, that stored energy must be manifest in some manner that may be useful.

The -meson is generated in the upper atmosphere. If we remember that the quantum number 7 applies to both proton and neutron, we may speculate that when they are disrupted they break up into seven more or less equal units. The mass of the neutron is measured to be 1840 in terms of electron mass units. If this is divided by 7 we find 263 to the nearest whole unit This is identified as the -meson In terms of charge, the P-meson may be either positive, negative or zero. It appears that any doubly charged unit is too unstable to be identified in case it formed. We postulate the -mesons to have been created by the disruption of protons and neutrons.

Such a disruption may be triggered by a cosmic ray from outer space. Whatever the cause, it does not follow that the observed energy of the -meson can be attributed to the triggering particle. The observed energy of the unit is the shared energy of the original neutron or proton in the process of disruption.

The observed lifetime of the -meson is about two microseconds. In order to reach a recording instrument on earth, the condition of internal strain tending to disrupt the particle must be very low indeed. The velocity of the particle differs from that of light only by an amount so small as to be close to the limits of measurements.

When a high speed mass particle is shot out by a nucleus, the reaction on the nucleus is greater than that which can be explained by the mass of the emitted particles. The contraction factor as applied to the problem indicates that the reaction is theoretically infinite if the particle is expelled with the velocity of light. In the case of a rocket ship in outer space, the space of the ship is determined by the ship itself. If the observed limitations are correct. no object accelerated by forces in a given space can be made to exceed the velocity of light in that space. Then we conclude that the meson drive is limited in such a manner that the particles themselves cannot exceed the velocity of light with respect to the space ship, but the reaction on the ship itself can be made quite large.

The photon rocket has been proposed as a possible propulsion system. Unfortunately, the photon takes no contraction factor. It is scarcely reasonable to turn on a flashlight and blast yourself out of the universe by the reaction of a beam of light.

Since all matter is composed of electrons and positrons, the -meson in no exception. The unstable particles are composed of nonorbital groups. The only stable matter is orbital matter This fact applies to the proton and the neutron as well as atoms.

One mystery still remains. There can be no doubt that the energy of creation of the proton or neutron is far in excess of that which can be accounted for by its measured mass. Since these particles can be formed in the Betatron Collider, we must assume that the particles in the beam before collision had the tremendous energy required. If this is true, we must assume that the energy was manifested as a mass increase since the velocity of light cannot be exceeded by the particles in the beam.

There in only one answer that can be given. We are forced to conclude that the energy stored in the electromagnetic field of the proton and neutron has no mass manifestation as long as the particles remain stable. When the particles are disrupted into n-mesons, the manifestation of mass again becomes apparent. We conclude that it is not always true that mass and energy are equivalent in terms of measurement, perhaps it is time for the theorists to introduce another dimension. Golly Gee!

As a matter of passing interest, if the universal energy is electromagnetic, and the whole thing started with a single unit as required by the Big Bang, the measure of universal energy depends on the square of the number of particles involved. In this case the present measure of universal energy is low by a factor of the number of particles. If we consider mass energy only. the total is given by the simple summation of the number of particles. This fact may serve to account for the energy of Quasars.

The measure of the effectiveness of any rocket fuel is the specific impulse that applies. This is defined as pounds of thrust delivered per pound per second of fuel used. Since this is in the form of a ratio, the pound units cancel the denominator inverts so that nothing is left but seconds. This is an unfortunate simplification, since one of the pounds refers to thrust and the other to fuel used to produce that thrust. Solid rocket fuels have specific impulses of about 250. Liquid fuels in general have higher specific impulses, but flow problems and valving tend to limit their use. With burning time of about four minutes to expend the total fuel load, the flow rate is of the order of several tons per minute.

The present rocket system is a monstrosity dictated by the ineffectiveness of the chemical fuel. The ultimate chemical limit is provided by burning liquid hydrogen with liquid oxygen. The resulting specific impulse is about 450. Since the rocket must carry its own fuel, and that fuel must be lifted by the generated thrust, as the fuel load gets heavier, the rate of consumption must be increased to lift it. In terms of future space travel, the chemical rocket is a self-defeating system which must be discarded.

Present nuclear energy has been proposed as a means of generating thrust. A series of small, controlled explosions may be used in such a manner that the rocket is lifted by the first explosion. The second explosion lifts it more and adds to whatever velocity was generated by the first. This continues as the rocket climbs into space. With each explosion, the shield between the blast and the crew erodes until there is nothing left of it.

Another suggestion is that of a nuclear reactor on board. If the heat generated by the reactor is applied to stored hydrogen carried in liquid form to save space, the expanded gas can be expelled to provide thrust. A specific impulse of about 900 can be achieved Of course. a few feet of lead shielding would be required between reactor and crew.

If a gas is ionized and the ions expelled rearward by an applied voltage, a high specific impulse can be attained. Unfortunately, the thrust levels attained are of the order of micropounds per megawatt of electrical power used. It scarcely seems reasonable to put Boulder Dam on a spacecraft.

Considering the possibilities of the meson drive, all we have to do is to learn how to generate mesons in unlimited numbers and how to control them in such a manner as to provide an adequate thrust. In this case we must extend the present knowledge of nuclear reactions in such a manner that not only the entire nucleus is disrupted, but also the nuclear particles themselves.