The author likes to consider himself a wit. Others at times have conceded that he is half right, which makes him a half-wit. The title of the chapter is a case in point. If we proclaim: "Ezekial emcee squared," this sounds very much like an equation attributed to Albert Einstein.

In a compressional medium, the velocity of propagation of an impulse is given as the square root of the ratio of Bulk Modulus over mass density. Since the Bulk Modulus has the units of energy per unit volume, we find that the energy per unit volume is given by the mass density multiplied by the square of the velocity of propagation. In the case of a tensional medium, the propagation velocity is given by the square root of the ratio of tension to mass density, where the tension describes the energy per unit volume as before. In this case also, we find that the energy per unit volume is given by the mass density multiplied by the square of the propagation velocity. Then we find that it applies to radiation in space since space has tensional characteristics as indicated by the fact that all known wave motions are transverse. Since we have shown the configuration of stable matter as a photon chasing its tail, the equation applies to the positron and electrons as the basic units of matter. There is no reason to assume that it applies to the neutron or proton or any heavier unit such as an atom.

The present view of the photon is that it is an electromagnetic entity. This may be true, but it carries no net charge. In spite of this fact, when it was formed into the toroidal configuration from that of the cylinder, a charge resulted. Further, the electron is assigned a negative charge. The only difference between the positron and the electron is that of the spin reversal with respect to the vortex flow. We must then assume that the positive charge of the positron is a result of this spin reversal.

The electrical energy of charge depends on the square of the charge. In this case the charge energies of positron and electron are equal since the process of squaring removes the effect of the negative in the electron. Further, in a closely associated group of charges as that applying to the neutron structure, the total energy of the group increases as the square of the number of charges present. Since the mass energy increases only as the number of masses present, and the energy of charge increases as the square of that number, the total energy of the neutron is 1860

times as great as that described in terms of the mass energy alone.

The analysis presented for the neutron applies to the proton as well. This is quite sufficient to account for the extreme energy of mesons generated in the upper atmosphere of earth. It appears that the mass-energy equation is not more than a beginning.

If creation occurred in the form of a singularity as required by the Big Bang, we extend the analysis of the neutron to the universe as a unit. We find that the total energy as given by the mass-energy equation is low by a factor equal to the number of positrons and electrons in existence. If the estimate of the number of fundamental particles is correct, we find the estimate of universal energy low by a factor of ten to the eighty-second power. This is more energy than anyone can imagine.

The concept of empty space is most unfortunate. If space exists, it must have a reality of existence. As applied to space, the concept of "nothing" has no meaning. If we define space on the basis of energy density, we must have an energy density present. Since the energy content is certainly not kinetic, we conclude that space has no reality of existence aside from its potential energy content. Then we find that space has no meaning aside from that of a potential energy field.

In terms of the constant velocity of light in space, the velocity of propagation is equal to the square root of tension over mass density. Then the tension can vary in any way whatsoever as long as the mass density varies to correspond. There is no reason to invoke the existence of an infinite and homogeneous space in order to insure the existence of a constant velocity of light.

Let us consider the existence of a single mass element. This mass element, in the absence of an external reference frame, constitutes the universe. Since a volume must apply, there exists a distribution of mass in the volume which permits definition of a mass center. This mass center is a point of origin of the only reference frame which can be defined. Since the mass object cannot translate with respect to itself, the mass center by definition is a point of absolute rest.

Now let us assume the existence of a second mass object. We now have three entities in existence. These three entities consist of object number 1, object number 2, and the system of the two objects considered as a single unit.

The first object is a distributed system consisting of an infinite number of mass points since it has a volume other than zero. The addition of the second mass object changes the configuration of the existing system, but cannot change the basic nature of the analysis. It follows that the center of mass of the modified system can be defined, and this point must be assigned a condition of absolute rest. This fact must remain true even in the case of a relative motion between the two objects.

We find that the assignment of the relative velocity to either one of the two objects is an insult to reason. The nature of the relativity principle is such that no distinction can be made between the magnitude of objects associated with moving reference frames. This fact led Einstein to the erroneous conclusion that either frame was equally valid and that there existed no third reference frame by means of which the motion of each of the two objects could be described.

We have found that the center of mass of the two object system can be defined. In this case there may be no actual mass located at the mass center. Then we must discard another error of relativity theory to the effect that reference frames must be associated with mass points. This point of reference can be determined by the equation of mass moments.

Now that we have determined that the two body system can be considered as a single unit, we assume the addition of a third mass object. Since the two body system can be considered as a single unit, the added object creates the equivalent of another two body system. It follows that the center of mass of the new system can be determined. This point constitutes the origin of the new universal reference frame. Since the system as a unit cannot move with respect to itself, this point must be defined as a point of absolute rest.

The same procedure can be followed for each added mass until the total mass of the universe is included. It follows that subject only to the requirement that the mass of the universe is finite, a universal reference frame can be established.

We conclude that the relativity requirement that no absolute motion can be defined is at odds with reality. Even if the mass center of the universe cannot be located in reality, it has been shown to exist. We can now use the concept in the development of a reasonable philosophy of science to replace the relativity principle which has plagued humanity so long.

The concept of the center of mass is purely mathematical. In the case of a distributed mass, which applies for any object having a volume, the mathematical analysis is greatly simplified if we can assume that the entire mass is located at a single point, and a single force can be applied to cause motion. This can only be true in case there are internal forces in the object of such a nature as to establish a coherent structure.

Particle theory is relatively new. The kinetic theory of gases gave no insight into the nature of the molecule although it recognized its existence. The electron was discovered to exist only a hundred years ago. Einstein considered particles of matter as space singularities. This name was applied only in the sense of recognizing the fact the known laws of physics did not apply at such a point. If we consider that the only known law of force was that of the inverse square, the force became infinite as the zero value of the radius vector was approached. Since this is an impossibility, the particle constitutes a point of singularity.

Internal forces are subject to calculation, but the results derived may be somewhat of a shock. In the study of mechanics, the value of pressure can be expressed in terms of energy per unit volume. In the case of the electron at rest, the energy distribution is one-half kinetic and one-half potential, with the distributed potential energy forming the space of the particle. It follows that the internal energy is equal to one-half the total and is kinetic in nature. The centrifugal force generated by this internal circulation must be truly enormous. We call to mind that the internal circulation velocity is that of light for the particle at rest.

The centrifugal effect acts in the same manner as an internal pressure tending to force the surface outward. The numerical value of this internal pressure is given as one-half the total energy of the electron divided by its volume. Calculation shows that this value is in excess of ten to the eighteenth pounds per square inch. This is unity followed by eighteen zeros. It is suggested that those investigators who talk so glibly of electrons going in and out of existence should take note of the pressure involved.

In terms of knowledge to be derived, the building of the supercollider is a pointless gesture. There exists no particle theory of sufficient sanity to interpret the experimental results. It has significance in terms of political one-upmanship. We can then say to the world: "Look what we got; it's bigger than anything you got," and feel quite smug about the whole thing.

To return to the interior of the electron, we are faced with a problem. The problem is that the electron does not fly apart under the action of centrifugal force. Then there is required the existence of an internal mass force of attraction of sufficient magnitude to stabilize the unit.

The Newtonian gravitational force is much too weak to provide stability in the electron, but it can be used as a basis of comparison. We find the stabilizing mass force in the electron to be forty-five orders of magnitude greater than that of the Newtonian gravitational force. This figure is given by unity followed by forty-five zeros. The superforce postulated by unified field theory can now sit down and be quiet.

In electromagnetic theory, a wave motion in space spreads with distance. If we interpret the photon as an electromagnetic wave motion, we must ask why it retains its identity over interstellar distances of travel. There can be no answer provided by electromagnetic theory.

In the present work we have found that a wave element one wavelength long and one wavelength in circumference describes the photon. The spin is at right angles to the direction of travel but must describe the motion of mass. In this case the centrifugal effect must be balanced by a mass force tending to collapse the unit. The energy density is found to be proportional to the inverse fourth power of the wavelength. It is required that any photon has an identity of its own separate from that of the medium in which it travels. The particle-wave duality of the photon is thus established. The energy of the photon spreads only under the action of external interference. Such an energy reduction is found in the case of gravitational deflection of a photon in the field of the sun.

Since the size of the unit depends on the wavelength, and this is related to the spin radius, the energy density in the space of the photon falls off inversely as the fourth power of the radius vector. This same fact applies to every mass particle in existence as well as to mass in the aggregate.

The current interest in space travel for the future has led to various proposals for the generation of thrust. The present rocket system is the ultimate in inefficiency. We have shown the validity of the laws of inertia and momentum as they apply in the space of the earth. In the presence of internal forces of repulsion, we may consider a system consisting of a heavy gun and a light bullet. The explosion of the charge of powder propels the bullet in one direction and the gun recoils in the opposite direction. The velocity of the bullet is quite large in relation to that of the recoil. Since the energy imparted by the explosion is measured by the square of the velocity in each case, almost all of the energy of motion was imparted to the bullet and very little was wasted on the recoil.

In terms of relativity theory, it is to be doubted that anyone would claim that the bullet is at rest and the gun is launched backward with the total relative velocity existing between bullet and gun. If this is the case, no one would dare to pull the trigger of the gun. The more reasonable assumption is that the center of mass of the system remains at rest. The momentum of the bullet in the forward direction is matched by the momentum of the recoil rearward so that no change in the original total momentum occurred. And thereby hangs a tale.

We find that no system can be accelerated by the action of internal forces only. If this is the case the search for self-contained propulsion systems is an exercise in futility. The Dean Drive is one example of such a system. This was a mechanism which was supposed to turn rotary motion into linear thrust. Needless to say, it did not exactly come up to the expectations of the inventor.

Now we return to the system of the gun and the bullet. The current concept of rocketry reverses the role of gun and bullet so as to replace the gun with the rocket carrying its load of fuel to act as bullets. Since each bit of fuel ejected at any instant is so light, and the rocket is so heavy, practically all of the energy is wasted on accelerating the fuel and very little is imparted to the rocket.

Jules Verne had the better idea. His moon rocket was the bullet with passengers enclosed. The gun was built into a mountain to absorb the recoil. In this case the total energy was more or less effective in launching the ship. Since the acceleration imparted to the bullet in the case of an artillery shell may be as much as twenty thousand times earth's gravity, we can expect the passengers in the capsule to end up as grease spots on the rear wall. This action can be more than slightly fatal.

The photon rocket has been suggested as one means of propulsion. Since photons carry mass, their expulsion from any system must result in a reaction on the system of origin. It is also true that a system illuminated by a beam of light experiences a radiation pressure. The effect is not exactly overwhelming. It is hard to visualize anyone turning on a flashlight on the vertical downward and being blasted into space by the recoil.

When the neutron disrupts in the outer atmosphere, -mesons are formed. Theory indicates that since quantum state seven applies to the neutron ring there should be seven more or less equal mass units formed. The mass of the meson to be expected is given by dividing 1860 by 7. The meson mass resulting is then 266 to the nearest whole number, but the square of this number must be used to describe its energy. In this case the velocity of the emitted meson must be so close to that of light that the difference appears only in the fifth decimal place. The reaction is that equivalent to a mass much heavier. Application of contraction theory indicates that a propulsion system based on the meson drive can produce rocket velocities many orders of magnitude in excess of that of the velocity of light without the necessity of multi-staging.

The reaction has been experimentally confirmed at Berkeley in California. The inverse contraction factor according to velocity measurements made in the atmosphere for mesons from space yields a value of 268. This is very close to the value of 266 found by theory. The possibility of the meson drive for future space exploration is not to be doubted.

Since we have demonstrated the fact that the time transformation of relativity has no existence in the world of reality, the "Twin-paradox" does not exist. Since a space ship in outer space is in a medium too tenuous to be defined, no velocity limitations apply. The application of the meson drive predicts velocities with respect to the external universe of the order of twenty million times the velocity of light. It appears that humanity is not limited to this mass point in space called the earth by anything other than its own fear of the unknown.

The tremendous energy inherent in the neutron can be demonstrated by contraction theory in conjunction with quantum theory. We have stated that extreme contractions must apply to positrons and electrons in the neutron ring in order to account for the known fact that the neutron is quite small in relation to the size of a single electron. If we reduce the size of a single electron, we must assume that the internal circulation velocity is still that of light. If we reduce the radius of the particle by a factor of N, in order to maintain the stated flow velocity, the internal frequency is increased by a factor of N. Since the energy in quantum theory is given by Planck's Constant times frequency, the energy of a single electron in the contracted state is N times what it was before contraction. Since there are N units in the group, the energy of the group is N² times the original energy of one unit before contractions.

The analysis by quantum theory confirms that given by electrical theory. It also denies the validity of the mass-energy equation of Einstein for any particle other than positron and electron in the free state. It applies to the photon in the free state, but we must question what happens when a group of photons are given a mutual proximity. It seems that photon overlap can occur to establish the temperature continuum required in the study of thermodynamics.

The study of thermodynamics has lagged like every other study in the field of physics. There has been no progress in this field for about two hundred years. The kinetic theory of gases failed miserably since no consideration was given to the interior of matter. The molecule of kinetic theory has no internal structure to permit absorption and emission of radiant energy. Thermodynamics as applied to the atom has not been developed.