The Perpetuation of Error

ABSTRACT

It is shown that the field of physics is limited in its development by the perpetuation of erroneous concepts from the past. This fact applies to the concept of Euclidian space, to Newton's laws of motion, and to the work of Einstein. Corrections are made, and it is shown that space has no meaning aside from energy. Neutron and proton energy is shown to be far in excess of the simple mass energy form. Electron clusters are analyzed to show that they also have excess energy. The present measure of universal energy is low by a factor equal to the number of positrons and electrons in existence.

The first and worst error in the study of physics is that of a linear, homogeneous and infinite space. This led Galileo to his principle of relativity: "The laws of physics take the same form with respect to all inertial reference frames." To this resounding pronouncement, Einstein added the requirement: "The velocity of light is an absolute constant with respect to all observers under all conditions of motion." These two profound and erroneous conclusions have served to prevent any reasonable view of physical creation.

The role of authority is that of the Mafia Don. No dissention is to be tolerated. The dissenting voice in this case was Leibnitz who proclaimed: "Where there is no matter, there is no space." Newton, as head of the Royal Society, very carefully and completely prevented any publications by Leibnitz.

The voice of truth carries no weight in human affairs. Assuming that Leibnitz is right, the space of an object is determined by the object itself and moves with the object. The energy density of that space is reduced with elevation as the inverse fourth power of the radius vector. The gravitational potential is constant with angle and varies with elevation only. In this case a spherical object such as the earth rotates within its own non-rotating space.

The second law of motion states that an applied force increases the momentum of an object with time of application. This automatically requires an energy increase in the object to which the force is applied. The third law states that contact forces between two objects are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. This requires a zero net force. If the point of contact is moved through any distance, the work done is zero. In this case, no net amount of work was accomplished, and no net amount of energy was transferred. Then we find that the second law and the third law flatly contradict each other. The presently accepted procedure is to disregard the third law and apply only the second law in the study of energy exchanges. Since the equality of action and reaction is an experimental fact, the supposed transfer of energy by contact is an error that has been perpetuated in time as long as the field of physics has existed.

If an energy element can be added to a field already in existence, the result is a radiation element. Since the velocity of light in space is known, we write

where the distribution is one half potential and one half kinetic. Then we write

which integrates into

It follows that there exists an energy distribution in space which can be drawn upon to augment the energy of the object. If we write the second law

This becomes

to describe an energy element. If energy from space augments the existing energy, we must have

If we introduce M as an integrating factor, we have

The integrated form is

In this case, the mass equation is

The energy of an object augmented by radiation mass from a field is then

We state: The mass of an object can increase only by the absorption of radiation mass from a field. We may wonder what condition exists in the field to permit the release of bound energy.

Energy is bound in a static field. We consider the case of free fall. The Einstein analysis is

where it is assumed that the field energy augments the rest energy in falling from the condition of rest at infinity. This is a gross error since the energy cannot be released from the field. We must write

to describe the conservation of energy under the action of free fall. Then we find

If we expand the right member, we find

where terms of higher order are neglected. It follows that the left member describes a reduced potential energy. The relativity concept that field forces are invariant with the velocity of an object is shown to be false.

A radiation element is given by

where the reduced mass is given by

Then if radiation occurs, the kinetic energy of the reduced mass is given by

In order that an orbital system may be formed, an object in free fall must radiate. The internal energy remaining must be the total original energy reduced by the sum of the remaining kinetic energy and the radiation loss. Then we write

Then we find

where C is a reduced velocity given by

Since this applies to all orbital systems, we find that the velocity of light in a gravitational field is given by

where G is the universal gravitational constant, M is the mass generating the field, and r is the radius vector to the point at which the measurement is made. It follows that the velocity of light is not an absolute constant. It also follows that Einstein's special theory of relativity is without foundation.

We are now in a position to update Leibnitz and state: Where there is no energy, there is no space. Then it is entirely in error to speak of the void of space. There is no such thing as "empty space." This sheds new light on the concept of space travel since in a region of zero energy density, there exists nothing to prevent the attainment of any velocity within the capability of the fuel used. As an example, calculation indicates that the use of a meson drive is able to provide velocities of the order of 2 x 10⁷C₀. This is twenty million times the velocity of light.

At the other extreme, it seems that there exists no upper limit to the energy density of space. If we invoke electromagnetic theory, we observe that the energy of a single charge is

but the mutual effect of a single charge in a group of N closely associated charges is

Then if the self energy of N equal charges is added to (5.2), we find

where the electromagnetic system of units is used. The use of the mass moment equation

then permits (5.3) to be written

The implication is that neutrons and protons are formed from electrons and positrons, and that the energy of the group is far in excess of the simple mass energy form. We write

where M_g represents the total mass of the group.

The energy of N units in isolation is then

If this is compared to (5.5), we find a multiplying factor of N units. This discrepancy leads to a consideration of quantum theory and contraction energy.

The quantum energy form is

with the implication that ther exists an internal circulation velocity in the positron or the electron. Then we write

If the electron radius is contracted by the factor N, (6.2) becomes

The energy of a single unit is then

If there are N units in the group, the group energy is

to agree with (5.5). Then we find that the individual electrons and positrons in the neutron group are in such a highly compressed state that the neutron volume is much less than the volume of a single electron or positron from which it was formed. In fact, the volume increase ratio in the process of returning to the original state is in excess of 10¹⁰.

The electron is a toroid with a volume given by

Since charge in motion constitutes a current flow, the motion of the charge around the axis of the solenoid ring induces a magnetic field in the interior given by

The energy is given by

Use of (6.2) then provides

to repeat (5.1).

The neutron is a toroidal form with a volume given by (7.1) where the neutron radius applies. Spin pairing is such that magnetic effects add. Then we write

The energy is given by

to repeat (5.3). It follows that the neutron has a magnetic moment in spite of the neutrality of charge.

The neutron becomes a proton by the loss of the triplet electron-positron-electron from the ring. This leaves one excess positive for the proton charge. The electron-positron pair then decays to the simple neutrino, imparting some or all of the decay energy to the emitted electron. The end point energy of the

electron in this case is

This is in agreement with experimental fact. Assuming the neutron mass to be 1840 electron mass equivalents, the proton mass is 1837 electron mass equivalents. These values are in close agreement with experiment.

We conclude that the energy excess is released when the group is dispersed. This constitutes a time variation in the field. In the case of free fall, if the time variation in the field is such as to retard the object below that of free fall in a static field, the object emits radiation. This is well documented as the retardation spectrum. If the phase variation in the field is such as to accelerate the object beyond the velocity of free fall, energy is released from the field to augment the energy of the falling object. In the case of free fall in a static field, the kinetic energy is increased as the potential energy is reduced so that no change in the total occurs.

The conclusion is that no analysis is complete which disregards the role of the field energy. We turn our attention to the formation and decay of electron clusters. Such a cluster is in the form of a toroid with electrons paired with opposite spins (1). For a condition of balance, we must have

The magnetic field is given by

where N is the number of electrons involved. The energy is

where V is given by (8.1).

By (8.1) the radius is

If we write

and the value of H from (8.2), we find

so that the radius of the cluster is directly proportional to the number of electrons in the group. To appear in the visible range, an order of magnitude of 10¹³ electrons per cluster is required.

The energy of the cluster is

by the use of (8.6). If we compare this with the ballistic energy

we find the ratio

Then there exists an energy excess to be accounted for.

Coulomb forces have not been mentioned. In the interior of a metallic conductor, the presence of equal numbers of positive and negative charges requires a net effect of zero for such forces, but it is certain that there is no such cancellation of energies. When electron emission occurs, forces of mutual repulsion result in a high velocity outward from the point of emission. This final velocity is that applying to both (8.7) and (8.8). The discrepancy cannot be explained by the use of coulomb energy. The inverse square force law cannot apply except at distances which are great enough to view the electron as a point charge.

As a matter of speculation without proof, if we invoke the "Big Bang" in which the universe was created by a single event, the mass energy fails to account for the total. By (5.6) the present estimate of universal energy is low by a factor equal to the number of positrons and electrons in existence. This is estimated to be 10⁸² or ten to the eighty-second power. If it is true that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, this amount of excess energy must be roaming around someplace.

(1) Kenneth Shoulders
P.O. Box 243, Bodega, CA 94922